SoManyThingz

The mediastinum is the cavity that separates the lungs from the rest of the chest. It contains the heart, esophagus, trachea, thymus, and aorta. The mediastinum has three main parts: the anterior mediastinum (front), the middle mediastinum, and the posterior mediastinum (back).
The most common mediastinal masses are neurogenic tumors (20% of mediastinal tumors), usually found in the posterior mediastinum, followed by thymoma (15-20%) located in the anterior mediastinum.^[1]
Masses in the anterior portion of the mediastinum can include thymoma, lymphoma, pheochromocytoma, germ cell tumors including teratoma, thyroid tissue, and parathyroid lesions. Masses in this area are more likely to be malignant than those in other compartments.^[2][3]
Masses in the posterior portion of the mediastinum tend to be neurogenic in origin, and in adults tend to be of neural sheath origin including neurilemomas and neurofibromas.^[1]
Lung cancer typically spreads to the lymph nodes in the mediastinum.
In several editions of Physical Diagnosis,^[4] concerning mediastinal tumors the author writes:

Diagnosis

According to Christian¹ the mediastinal neoplasms which are neither so rare nor so obscure as to make diagnosis practically impossible are: (1) Sarcoma (including lymphosarcoma, leucaemic growths, and Hodgkins' disease; (2) Teratoma and cyst.

Many signs and symptoms of a mediastinal tumor do not distinguish between these two principal classes of mediastinal tumor. However, on a radiograph usually the former class will have an irregular shape and the latter class will have a smooth spherical or ovoid shape. A large minority of patients with a mediastinal teratoma (including dermoid cyst) will cough up hair.^[4] For a differential diagnosis, the key is to exclude aneurism.

Borderline personality disorder (BPD) is a pattern of abnormal behavior characterized by impulsivity, unstable affect, inconsistent interpersonal relationships, and poor self-image. Some individuals also display uncontrollable anger and depression. The pattern is typically present by early adulthood, and occurs across a variety of situations and contexts.^[3] Other symptoms include intense fears of abandonment, sensitivity to feelings of rejection, and irritability of vague or uncertain origin.^[3][4] People with BPD often engage in idealization and devaluation of others, alternating between high positive regard and great disappointment.^[5] Self-harm, suicidal behavior, and substance abuse are commonly associated.^[6]
The cause of BPD is unclear but believed to involve both genetic and environmental factors. A study done on twins suggested the illness could be inherited. Traits such as impulsiveness and aggression can be attributed to temperament.^[7] There is evidence that abnormalities of the frontolimbic networks are associated with many of the symptoms.^[8] The disorder is recognized in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. Since a personality disorder is a pervasive, enduring, and inflexible pattern of maladaptive inner experiences and pathological behavior, there is a general reluctance to diagnose personality disorders before adolescence or early adulthood.^[9] However, some practitioners emphasize that without early treatment, the symptoms may worsen.^[10]
There is an ongoing debate about the terminology of this disorder, especially the suitability of the word "borderline".^[11][12] The ICD-10 manual refers to the disorder as emotionally unstable personality disorder and has similar diagnostic criteria. In the DSM-5, the name of the disorder remains the same as in the previous editions

Anorexia nervosa, often referred to simply as anorexia,^[1] is an eating disorder characterized by a low weight, fear of gaining weight, a strong desire to be thin, and food restriction.^[2] Many people with anorexia see themselves as overweight even though they are underweight.^[2][3] If asked they usually deny they have a problem with low weight.^[4] Often they weigh themselves frequently, eat only small amounts, and only eat certain foods. Some will exercise excessively, force themselves to vomit, or use laxatives to produce weight loss. Complications may include osteoporosis, infertility and heart damage, among others.^[2] Women will often stop having menstrual periods.^[4]
The cause is not known. There appear to be some genetic components with identical twins more often affected than non-identical twins.^[3] Cultural factors also appear to play a role with societies that value thinness having higher rates of disease.^[4] Additionally, it occurs more commonly among those involved in activities that value thinness such as high level athletics, modelling, and dancing.^[4][5] Anorexia often begins following a major life change or stress inducing event. The diagnosis requires a significantly low weight. The severity of disease is based on body mass index (BMI) in adults with mild disease having a BMI of greater than 17, moderate a BMI of 16 to 17, severe a BMI of 15 to 16, and extreme a BMI less than 15. In children a BMI for age percentile of less than the 5th percentile is often used.^[4]
Treatment of anorexia involves restoring a healthy weight, treating the underlying psychological problems, and addressing behaviors that promote the problem. While medications do not help with weight gain, they may be used to help with associated anxiety or depression.^[2] A number of types of therapy may be useful including an approach where parents assume responsibility for feeding their child, known as Maudsley family therapy and cognitive behavioral therapy.^[2][6] Sometimes people require admission to hospital to restore weight.^[7] Evidence for benefit from nasogastric tube feeding; however, is unclear.^[8] Some people will just have a single episode and recover while others may have many episodes over years.^[7] Many complications improve or resolve with regaining of weight.^[7]
Globally anorexia is estimated to affect two million people as of 2013.^[9] It is estimated to occur in 0.9% to 4.3% of women and 0.2% to 0.3% of men in Western countries at some point in their life.^[10] About 0.4% of young females are affected in a given year and it is estimated to occur ten times less commonly in males.^[4][10] Rates in most of the developing world are unclear.^[4] Often it begins during the teen years or young adulthood.^[2] While anorexia became more commonly diagnosed during the 20th century it is unclear if this was due to an increase in its frequency or simply better diagnosis.^[3] In 2013 it directly resulted in about 600 deaths globally up from 400 deaths in 1990.^[11] Eating disorders also increase a person's risk of death from a wide range of other causes including suicide.^[2][10] About 5% of people with anorexia die from complications over a ten-year period.^[4] The term anorexia nervosa was first used in 1873 by William Gull to describe this condition

Early prostate cancer usually has no clear symptoms. Sometimes, however, prostate cancer does cause symptoms, often similar to those of diseases such as benign prostatic hyperplasia. These include frequent urination, nocturia (increased urination at night), difficulty starting and maintaining a steady stream of urine, hematuria (blood in the urine), and dysuria (painful urination). A study based on the 1998 Patient Care Evaluation in the US found that about a third of patients diagnosed with prostate cancer had one or more such symptoms, while two thirds had no symptoms.^[13]
Prostate cancer is associated with urinary dysfunction as the prostate gland surrounds the prostatic urethra. Changes within the gland, therefore, directly affect urinary function. Because the vas deferens deposits seminal fluid into the prostatic urethra, and secretions from the prostate gland itself are included in semen content, prostate cancer may also cause problems with sexual function and performance, such as difficulty achieving erection or painful ejaculation.^[13]
Advanced prostate cancer can spread to other parts of the body, possibly causing additional symptoms. The most common symptom is bone pain, often in the vertebrae (bones of the spine), pelvis, or ribs. Spread of cancer into other bones such as the femur is usually to the proximal or nearby part of the bone. Prostate cancer in the spine can also compress the spinal cord, causing tingling, leg weakness and urinary and fecal incontinence.^[14]

Risk factors

A complete understanding of the causes of prostate cancer remains elusive.^[15] The primary risk factors are obesity, age and family history. Prostate cancer is very uncommon in men younger than 45, but becomes more common with advancing age. The average age at the time of diagnosis is 70.^[16] However, many men never know they have prostate cancer. Autopsy studies of Chinese, German, Israeli, Jamaican, Swedish, and Ugandan men who died of other causes have found prostate cancer in 30% of men in their 50s, and in 80% of men in their 70s.^[17] Men who have first-degree family members with prostate cancer appear to have double the risk of getting the disease compared to men without prostate cancer in the family.^[18] This risk appears to be greater for men with an affected brother than for men with an affected father. In the United States in 2005, there were an estimated 230,000 new cases of prostate cancer and 30,000 deaths due to prostate cancer.^[19] Men with high blood pressure are more likely to develop prostate cancer.^[20] There is a small increased risk of prostate cancer associated with lack of exercise.^[21] A 2010 study found that prostate basal cells were the most common site of origin for prostate cancers.^[22]

Genetic

Genetic background may contribute to prostate cancer risk, as suggested by associations with race, family, and specific gene variants. Men who have a first-degree relative (father or brother) with prostate cancer have twice the risk of developing prostate cancer, and those with two first-degree relatives affected have a fivefold greater risk compared with men with no family history.^[23] In the United States, prostate cancer more commonly affects black men than white or Hispanic men, and is also more deadly in black men.^[24][25] In contrast, the incidence and mortality rates for Hispanic men are one third lower than for non-Hispanic whites. Studies of twins in Scandinavia suggest that 40% of prostate cancer risk can be explained by inherited factors.^[26]
No single gene is responsible for prostate cancer; many different genes have been implicated. Mutations in BRCA1 and BRCA2, important risk factors for ovarian cancer and breast cancer in women, have also been implicated in prostate cancer.^[27] Other linked genes include the Hereditary Prostate cancer gene 1 (HPC1), the androgen receptor, and the vitamin D receptor.^[24] TMPRSS2-ETS gene family fusion, specifically TMPRSS2-ERG or TMPRSS2-ETV1/4 promotes cancer cell growth.^[28]
Two large genome-wide association studies linking single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) to prostate cancer were published in 2008.^[29][30] These studies identified several SNPs which substantially affect the risk of prostate cancer. For example, individuals with TT allele pair at SNP rs10993994 were reported to be at 1.6 times higher risk of prostate cancer than those with the CC allele pair. This SNP explains part of the increased prostate cancer risk of African American men as compared to American men of European descent, since the C allele is much more prevalent in the latter; this SNP is located in the promoter region of the MSMB gene, thus affects the amount of MSMB protein synthesized and secreted by epithelial cells of the prostate.^[31]

Dietary

While some dietary factors have been associated with prostate cancer the evidence is still tentative.^[32] Evidence supports little role for dietary fruits and vegetables in prostate cancer occurrence.^[33] Red meat and processed meat also appear to have little effect in human studies.^[34] Higher meat consumption has been associated with a higher risk in some studies.^[35]
Lower blood levels of vitamin D may increase the risk of developing prostate cancer.^[36]
Folic acid supplements have no effect on the risk of developing prostate cancer.^[37]

Medication exposure

There are also some links between prostate cancer and medications, medical procedures, and medical conditions.^[38] Use of the cholesterol-lowering drugs known as the statins may also decrease prostate cancer risk.^[39]
Infection or inflammation of the prostate (prostatitis) may increase the chance for prostate cancer while another study shows infection may help prevent prostate cancer by increasing blood to the area. In particular, infection with the sexually transmitted infections chlamydia, gonorrhea, or syphilis seems to increase risk.^[40] Finally, obesity^[41] and elevated blood levels of testosterone^[42] may increase the risk for prostate cancer. There is an association between vasectomy and prostate cancer; however, more research is needed to determine if this is a causative relationship.^[43]
Research released in May 2007, found that US war veterans who had been exposed to Agent Orange had a 48% increased risk of prostate cancer recurrence following surgery.^[44]

Infectious disease

An association with gonorrhea has been found, but a mechanism for this relationship has not been identified.^[6]
In 2006, a previously unknown retrovirus, Xenotropic MuLV-related virus or XMRV, was associated with human prostate tumors,^[45] but subsequent reports on the virus were contradictory,^[46][47] and the original 2006 finding was instead due to a previously undetected contamination.^[48] The journals Science and PlosONE both retracted XMRV related articles.^[49][50]

Sexual factors

Several case-control studies have shown that having many lifetime sexual partners or starting sexual activity early in life substantially increases the risk of prostate cancer.^[51][52][53]
While the available evidence is weak,^[54] tentative results suggest that frequent ejaculation may decrease the risk of prostate cancer.^[55] A study, over eight years, showed that those that ejaculated most frequently (over 21 times per month on average) were less likely to get prostate cancer.^[56] The results were broadly similar to the findings of a smaller Australian study.^[57]

Cancer is a group of diseases involving abnormal cell growth with the potential to invade or spread to other parts of the body.^[1][2] Not all tumors are cancerous; benign tumors do not spread to other parts of the body.^[2] Possible signs and symptoms include: a new lump, abnormal bleeding, a prolonged cough, unexplained weight loss, and a change in bowel movements among others.^[3] While these symptoms may indicate cancer, they may also occur due to other issues.^[3] There are over 100 different known cancers that affect humans.^[2]
Tobacco use is the cause of about 22% of cancer deaths.^[1] Another 10% is due to obesity, a poor diet, lack of physical activity, and consumption of alcohol.^[1][4] Other factors include certain infections, exposure to ionizing radiation, and environmental pollutants.^[5] In the developing world nearly 20% of cancers are due to infections such as hepatitis B, hepatitis C, and human papillomavirus (HPV).^[1] These factors act, at least partly, by changing the genes of a cell.^[6] Typically many such genetic changes are required before cancer develops.^[6] Approximately 5–10% of cancers are due to genetic defects inherited from a person's parents.^[7] Cancer can be detected by certain signs and symptoms or screening tests.^[1] It is then typically further investigated by medical imaging and confirmed by biopsy.^[8]
Many cancers can be prevented by not smoking, maintaining a healthy weight, not drinking too much alcohol, eating plenty of vegetables, fruits and whole grains, being vaccinated against certain infectious diseases, not eating too much processed and red meat, and avoiding too much exposure to sunlight.^[9][10] Early detection through screening is useful for cervical and colorectal cancer.^[11] The benefits of screening in breast cancer are controversial.^[11][12] Cancer is often treated with some combination of radiation therapy, surgery, chemotherapy, and targeted therapy.^[1][13] Pain and symptom management are an important part of care. Palliative care is particularly important in those with advanced disease.^[1] The chance of survival depends on the type of cancer and extent of disease at the start of treatment.^[6] In children under 15 at diagnosis the five-year survival rate in the developed world is on average 80%.^[14] For cancer in the United States the average five-year survival rate is 66%.^[15]
In 2012 about 14.1 million new cases of cancer occurred globally (not including skin cancer other than melanoma).^[6] It caused about 8.2 million deaths or 14.6% of all human deaths.^[6][16] The most common types of cancer in males are lung cancer, prostate cancer, colorectal cancer, and stomach cancer, and in females, the most common types are breast cancer, colorectal cancer, lung cancer, and cervical cancer.^[6] If skin cancer other than melanoma were included in total new cancers each year it would account for around 40% of cases.^[17][18] In children, acute lymphoblastic leukaemia and brain tumors are most common except in Africa where non-Hodgkin lymphoma occurs more often.^[14] In 2012, about 165,000 children under 15 years of age were diagnosed with cancer. The risk of cancer increases significantly with age and many cancers occur more commonly in developed countries.^[6] Rates are increasing as more people live to an old age and as lifestyle changes occur in the developing world.^[19] The financial costs of cancer have been estimated at $1.16 trillion US dollars per year as of 2010.^[20]

Today I'm gonna take a moment here to tell you what is HIV/AIDS how do you get it what happens and how to prevent it. I know people are educated much more nowadays but still some people don't know what it is and how to prevent it so here's what happens..


Human immunodeficiency virus infection and acquired immune deficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS) is a spectrum of conditions caused by infection with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV).^[5][6][7] Following initial infection, a person may not notice any symptoms or may experience a brief period of influenza-like illness.^[8] Typically, this is followed by a prolonged period with no symptoms.^[9] As the infection progresses, it interferes more with the immune system, increasing the risk of common infections like tuberculosis, as well as other opportunistic infections, and tumors that rarely affect people who have working immune systems.^[8] These late symptoms of infection are referred to as AIDS.^[9] This stage is often also associated with weight loss.^[9]
HIV is spread primarily by unprotected sex (including anal and oral sex), contaminated blood transfusions, hypodermic needles, and from mother to child during pregnancy, delivery, or breastfeeding.^[10] Some bodily fluids, such as saliva and tears, do not transmit HIV.^[11] Methods of prevention include safe sex, needle-exchange programs, treating those who are infected, and male circumcision.^[8] Disease in a baby can often be prevented by giving both the mother and child antiretroviral medication.^[8] There is no cure or vaccine; however, antiretroviral treatment can slow the course of the disease and may lead to a near-normal life expectancy.^[9][12] Treatment is recommended as soon as the diagnosis is made.^[13] Without treatment, the average survival time after infection is 11 years.^[14]
In 2014 about 36.9 million people were living with HIV and it resulted in 1.2 million deaths.^[8] Most of those infected live in sub-Saharan Africa.^[8] Between its discovery and 2014 AIDS has caused an estimated 39 million deaths worldwide.^[15] HIV/AIDS is considered a pandemic—a disease outbreak which is present over a large area and is actively spreading.^[16] HIV is believed to have originated in west-central Africa during the late 19th or early 20th century.^[17] AIDS was first recognized by the United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) in 1981 and its cause—HIV infection—was identified in the early part of the decade.^[18]
HIV/AIDS has had a great impact on society, both as an illness and as a source of discrimination.^[19] The disease also has large economic impacts.^[19] There are many misconceptions about HIV/AIDS such as the belief that it can be transmitted by casual non-sexual contact.^[20] The disease has become subject to many controversies involving religion including the Catholic church's decision not to support condom use as prevention.^[21] It has attracted international medical and political attention as well as large-scale funding since it was identified in the 1980s.[

NASA scientists captured images of a supernova, or an exploding star, for the first time yesterday and we are totally transfixed by the video. While NASA has been able to see supernovae for some time, they were only capable of obtaintaing video of the ephemeral flash by monitoring 500 galaxies every 30 minutes for three years. And we're so elated they did.
Scientists used a Keplar space telescope to catch the star as it burst — it's the same telescope that has successfully discovered thousands of other planets. The supernova in the video, technically named KSN 2011d, is a red supergiant, which has the greatest volume of all the star classifications though they are not the biggest stars in size. Supergiants are also considered to be some of the most luminous stars — and that's definitely apparent here! Keplar was able to spot KSN 2011d's 20-minute blast, despite being 1.2 billion light years away. We're not exactly sure how far away that is, but we're positive Google Maps cannot get you there. The discovery is a monumental step in dissecting the life cycle of stars and it's especially indicative of how different classifications of stars end their life cycles. As NASA analyzes its findings, we're just going to sit mesmerized by the supernova's explosion. Maybe after several hundred loops we'll watch this video of two black holes colliding.